CONTENTS

PART I

Fundamentals

Introduction

Background to this enigmatic puzzle. A perspective of the volumes, typical materials and timetables. Comparison with modern production rates both mechanised and manual.

Pyramid Construction Fundamentals

Identifying by examples the fundamental processes necessary for making any pyramid accurately. These fundamentals when applied to a massive pyramid.

Controlling the shape of any Pyramid

Delivering Materials

Alternative Proposals

A summary of how others have suggested large pyramids might have been made. Do they identify and resolve, or ignore the fundamentals identified?
Controlling the Shape
Delivering Materials

Pyramid Dimensions and Shapes

The accuracy of pyramid dimensions.

Alignment of Pyramids

Why and how pyramids were aligned to the cardinal points.

Preliminary Conclusions

Pyramid Corner Edges and the Virtual Apex

The geometry of symmetrical pyramids and how this can be applied to provide the corner edges of a pyramid without the apex for reference.

Reference Squares and the Virtual Centrepoint.
How the side or diagonal dimensions of certain squares can provide a simple method for calculating diagonal lengths from sides, or side lengths from diagonals.
How a square can be formed with a known diagonal length and squares with a known distance from their centrepoint, even when this is covered.
An alternative method of forming a right angle and partial diagonal in any square.

Discovery in Ancient Egypt

Background to this discovery.
Evidence in Ancient Egyptian measures.

Access Ramps and Platforms for the Delivery and Fitting of Materials

Description of a ramp/platform system which provides external access to a pyramid at each course level and maintains the same arrangement to the apex. How its cross section geometry exploits the shape of the pyramid

Examples of Egyptian Pyramids

Detailed dimensions, together with how their diagonal cross section dimensions might have been derived and lead to the profiles found.

The Southern (Bent) Pyramid
The Northern (Red) Pyramid
The Meidum Pyramid
The Great Pyramid of Khufu
Khafre’s Pyramid
Menkaure’s Pyramid
The layout of the Giza site

Conclusions

PART II

Building the Great Pyramid of Khufu

Details all aspects of the construction of this pyramid, including the preparation of typical materials, how the virtual apex, virtual centrepoint and ramp/platform system provide the vital elements in forming an accurate pyramid shape in solid stone and within a given time frame.

Preparation of the Site and Materials

Quarrying stone
Stone for the Core. Backing Blocks and Internal Features.
Stone for the Casing
Cutting Stone
Limestone
Granite

Prefabrication of Blocks for the Facade

Levelling and Marking the Base

The Pavement Layer

Delivering and Fitting the Base Course

The Reference Core

Choosing the first Reference Height

Placing the centrepoint and pyramid base corners

Fitting the base course

The perpendicular ramp

The Façade to the first Reference Height

Levelling the top of the Base Course
Marking the Corner Edge and the Pyramid Faces

Courses above the Base Course

The external platform/ramp system

Completing the pyramid to the Apex

Alternating Stages

Cutting the Pyramid faces

Internal Features

The Descending Passage and Subterranean Chamber
The Ascending Passage
The Queens Chamber and Grand Gallery
The King’s Chamber
The Relieving Ceilings
The Air Shafts

Timetables and Workforce

The Core to the first Reference height
The Façade to the first Reference Height
Workers, Effort and Time
Completing the Pyramid
Quarrying and Preparation of Material

Conclusions

Comments, which support the skill and effort of the Ancient Egyptians in creating markers of their technology, repeated throughout history, but in different ways.
Construction techniques and processes which continue to be used today; some re-discovered.
A summary of the versatility of the virtual apex and virtual centrepoint methods and how they could be applied to build large pyramids of any shape, accurately.
How the Ancient Egyptians were forced by their limited mathematics to exploit these methods in their simplest form.

Supplements

The coincidental appearance of Pi in the dimensions of the Great Pyramid
Building an Egyptian pyramid using geometry only.
The advantages and evidence of two-stage construction
Course Height Patterns in the Great Pyramid

References, Sources and Acknowledgements